A Feminist Critique of Abhijñānaśākuntalam
Ranjan Sigdel
Lecturer, Department of Sanskrit Sahitya
Central Campus, Nepal Sanskrit university
Abstract:
Abhijñānaśākuntalam, a classical Sanskrit play written by the renowned poet and playwright Kālidāsa, holds a prominent place in literary and artistic realms with translations and adaptations in numerous global languages. Extensive scholarly work has delved into the play’s multifaceted themes and content. However, this particular study adopts an unconventional approach—Liberal feminism—to examine the play. Amidst the narrative, Abhijñānaśākuntalam presents a nuanced interplay between female agency and their subjugation to male authority. Śakuntala, the central female character, embodies this duality, exhibiting moments of empowerment alongside instances of being subjected to patriarchal control. However, as a feminist reading this essay errors on the side of feminism and critically examines and establishes that gender discrimination and the sexual objectification of women are primary drawback of this play.
Keywords
Sanskrit, play, feminism, patriarchy, sexual objectification.
Introduction:
Abhijñānaśākuntalam, a highly acclaimed play written during 4th century AD by renounced poet Kālidas is an invaluable treasure of Sanskrit literature. It is considered one of the greatest works of Indian literature and has had a profound impact on Indian art and culture. It is a dramatic adaptation of a story poem Śakuntalopākhyān in Ādi Parva (first chapter) from great epic Mahabharata. It has been admired by many men of letters. A number of Western scholars have appreciated the celebrated poet and playwright Kālidāsa not to mention of the Easterners. Famous German literary figure Goethe has very effusively praised the beauty of Abhijñānaśākuntalam[1].
There is no doubt that it is a greatest ever play in Sanskrit literature. It offers a rich tapestry of themes to explore. For example it can be investigated based on its portrayal of royal ideals, bureaucratic administration, human-nature relationships, king-public relations, jurisprudence, nature- human bond, bridal ideals, and fantasy and many more. Moreover, each theme could be analyzed differently based on critical approach taken and analytical theory involved. This study seeks to see the play in question through feminist lenses. Considering the acclaim of the play and challenging nature of such unconventional undertaking, a softer liberal approach has been adopted in the study. “Swimming against the tide is dangerous”.
There are number of proponents holding diverse opinions about feminism subsequently proposing multiple feminist theories and perspectives. Instead of delving into the intricacies of the expanding array of feminist views, this study adopts a liberal feminist approach which also hopefully help avoid inviting undue criticism in this analysis. Since it’s impossible to examine all these aspects of gender bias in a single study, this paper focuses on the theme of female objectification.
Research Objective
The objective of this study is to analyze the play ‘Abhijñānaśākuntalam’ from a feminist perspective, with a specific focus on examining the pervasive theme of female objectification and stereotypical gender norms. The research aims to critically explore the portrayal of women in the play, considering the cultural context of classical Indian literature, and shed light on the complexities and contradictions inherent in their representation. By adopting a feminist lens, this study seeks to uncover and interrogate the instances of female objectification and gender norms within the text, while maintaining the time-honored value of this literary masterpiece.”
Review of Literature
Abhijñānaśākuntalam is the first piece of Sanskrit literature that drew the attention of European scholars during 1790s. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest Sanskrit plays and has received significant critical acclaim over the centuries leading to its widespread recognition. Words of appreciations by prominent literary figures such as Monier-Williams[2], Humboldt[3] and Goethe[4] have contributed to its popularity. Since then it has been translated in many languages adapted in many art forms, criticized and eulogized in several works. There’s no dearth of literature reviewing this play.
However, a number of analysis that are non-critical and irrelevant to this study are not taken into account. For example reviews that are impressionistic, eulogistic or based on various traditional literary devices and theories such “Rasa theory”, “Alankara theory”, “Dhvani theory” are not discussed here. A relevant few are presented here.
Adhikari, Anasuyā and Shah Birbal (2021) in their study entitled Śakuntalā: As authored by Kālidāsa and painted by Raja Rabi Varma; (https://doi.org/10.52403/gijash.20211008) have compared the depiction of Śakuntalā with that of Raja Rabi’s painting. The analysis in the study seems to be driven by impressionism. The authors have spent all their energy in eulogizing the painter Raja Rabi Varma and his painting skill rather than delving into a critical analysis
Gokhle Namita (2005) has based her celebrated fiction Śakuntalā: A play of the memory on “Abhijñānaśākuntalam”. She has raised the issue of feminism very powerfully in the fiction. The plot, theme and characters are slightly altered to suit the feminist pursuit. This work highlights women’s plight and miseries in the constraints of the patriarchy thus presenting a genuine feminist critique of the play, albeit in a different form.
Khanal, Shyama (2022) in her essay Women and Nature in Abhijñānaśākuntalam: an Eco-feminist Study (https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/haimaprabha/article/view/44870) has analyzed “how the identity, status and destiny of women remain intertwined with those of nature and how women and nature are treated as feminine and they are dominated and exploited”. She has sought to establish that patriarchal norms and values are responsible for the subversion of women and the degradation of the nature. She concludes that women and nature are assigned feminine characteristics and subsequently subjected to domination and exploitation by patriarchs.
Betageri Ankur (2018) in his paper “The Breaking of Śakuntalā: How Bare life is Transformed into social subject” has attacked the play severely. He has viewed the play through double: racial and feminist lenses wherein the power of racism seems very high. The language and tone used in the study appears to be ultra-racist rather than feminist. The unfounded and digressive condemnation of Brahmanism constitutes most of his analysis. Nevertheless there are some feminist points as well. The introduction of Durvasa episode in the play and the portrayal of Śakuntalā as meek, submissive girl is questioned. Aristotelian analogy of “zoos” and “bios” in connection with Śakuntalā is given to delineate her existential crisis. Overall, for him faults have outweighed merits in the play.
Story-Line
The male protagonist of the play is Dușyant. He is the king of Hastināpur kingdom, and female protagonist is Śakuntalā. She is a foster child of the sage Kaṇva. The story in Abhijñānaśākuntalam begins with the hunting expedition of the king Dusyanta.
One day Duṣyanta, comes hunting in the forest and meets Śakuntalā. They fall in love and get married in a secret ceremony. Duṣyanta is suddenly called back to Hastinapur. He makes a promise to send for her in the palace and sets off. In the meantime, the sage Durvāsā comes to visit Kaṇva’s hermitage. Śakuntalā who is lost in the memory of the king fails to attend to him. The vile tempered sage curses her wishing that the person she is thinking of would forget her and leaves.
Soon after, sage Kaṇva discovers that Śakuntalā is pregnant with Dusyanta’s child. He decides to send her to Hastināpur. Two young sages and a lady sage accompany her. Sure enough Duṣyanta fails to recognize her. Śakuntalā feels cheated. A heated argument breaks out between the king and the young sages after the former accuses Śakuntalā of being characterless and her claim as a ploy obtain a royal status. At this point, instead of defending Śakuntalā against such allegation the male hermits abandon Śakuntalā to her fate and leave away. She pleads with them to take her back too, but they reject her request outright. Now utterly devastated Śakuntalā bitterly cries. Meantime something of a divine light flashes out and in an instance Śakuntalā disappears.
Although the king accuses Śakuntalā in the court, deep in his heart a sense of guilt was taking over him. He felt that there is something that is preventing him from accessing his memory of her.
He was restless. Fortunately one day the insignia that he had gifted to Śakuntalā comes to him. All of sudden he can remember everything related to Śakuntalā. Now he deeply regrets his rude behavior to Śakuntalā. He wishes to see her again but couldn’t because has no knowledge of her whereabouts.
After some time Duṣyanta happens to come to a hermitage where a brave child was playing with a robust cub. This scene attracted the king and lovingly asked the boy about his identity. The answer of the child eventually united Śakuntalā with Dusyanta. The child was theirs. The king apologized with Śakuntalā and she also was very happy to find that he recognized her. They leaved happily ever after.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this critical essay is rooted in feminist literary criticism, which seeks to analyze and challenge the representation of women in literature, as well as explore the gender dynamics and power structures within literary works. The essay adopts a liberal approach to examine the play “Abhijñānaśākuntalam.” This approach focuses on equality and advocates for women’s rights and freedoms within the existing societal structures. It explores the themes of gender bias, such as the preference for male children, women’s vulnerability, and their sexual objectification in the play. Moreover this theoretical framework also acknowledges the cultural context of classical Indian literature, recognizing that the play is a product of its time and reflects the societal attitudes towards women during that period. It considers the complexities and contradictions inherent in the portrayal of women, highlighting the challenges of gender representation in classical Indian literature. The essay shows the ambiguous nature of women’s depiction in the play. It acknowledges that while the character of Śakuntalā exhibits strength, intelligence, and agency, she is also subjected to objectification and restrictive gender norms.
Data Collection
The data for this study was collected through a careful reading of the text of Abhijñānaśākuntalam, with a focus on the themes relevant to the research question and objective. In addition to the primary source the study drew [D1] on secondary sources of academic articles and books and journals that explored the play through the lens of liberal feminism.
Methodology
In this study a comprehensive research methodology is employed, encompassing qualitative content analysis, literature review, and comparative analysis. This methodology involved a thorough examination of the play’s text using qualitative content analysis techniques. Close reading and careful analysis of dialogues, character development, and plot structure allowed for the identification and interpretation of instances pertaining to gender bias and sexual objectification. Additionally, a literature review was conducted, surveying existing scholarly articles and books that explored the play and its themes within the context of liberal feminism. This step provided a comprehensive understanding of the existing academic discourse related to the portrayal of women in classical Indian literature.
Textual Analysis:
Abhijñānaśākuntalam It is a complex work of literature that can be interpreted in many ways. While it may reinforce traditional gender roles and power dynamics, it can also be read as a critique of those roles and dynamics. The characters of Śakuntalā and Duṣyanta do not conform to the strict gender roles of their time. Śakuntalā’s independence and agency challenge the traditional view of women as submissive and dependent, Śakuntalā for example is the in-charge of the hermitage during the absence of sage Kaṇva. Dusyanta has respected her in their first meeting. He has begged a sincere apology with Śkuntalā in their last meeting. She is free to marry a man of her choice. Sage Kaṇva has not objected to her decision. She is not forced to stay with Duṣyanta in the palace against her wish. However as this paper aims to examine this play from a feminist perspective it explores those events and episodes where patriarchal norms and values are reflected. While it discusses the themes such as preference of male child, damsel in distress, women in the harem this analysis primarily investigates the issues of sexual objectification that is prevalent in the play.
Since the play was originally in Sanskrit language an English translations for each citations is required. In order to provide these translations, I have personally translated most of the Sanskrit text myself. In cases where the translation was done by others, I have provided attribution in the footnotes.
Sexual Objectification:
Several feminist researches have shown that women have historically been objectified. They have either been treated as movable property or an object whose worth is limited to gratify male sexual pleasure. The type common in literature is the sexual objectification. It is primarily expressed through sexual innuendos and imageries.
While judging a time honored literary work from a feminist approach it’s important to remember that a reference to sex was something that characterized works of arts in general in classical period. If we look into works from medieval period we hardly find any devoid of erotic references. It was a pervasive theme. It’s evident by the fact that even invocatory verses often included it either in explicit terms[5] or through the use of double entendre[6]. It’s further warranted by the fact that works such as Kama Sutra which describes in vivid details about sexual life enjoyed social approval, equally erotic Khajuraho temple sculptures was well received by the public. Therefore it is not surprising that the works of art composed during that period involved erotic references.
Moreover Abhijñānaśākuntalam is a romantic comedy that revolves around the romance between Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā. The first three chapters dwell on their dating and lovemaking, and as a result, the play contains a lot of instances of sexual innuendos and imagery. Let’s explore them.
The play starts with the conventional character Sūtradhāra[7] asking Naṭī to sing a song. Naṭī is a lady character paired with to prelude the story to be performed. The Sūtradhāra asks Nati to sing a song for the entertainment of the audience. The song[8]is about young ladies and their plucking of Śiriṣ (Mimosa) flower. There is a special term in the song: “Pradmadā” used to refer to women. Morphologically this word is formed using a prefix “Pra” and a root word “Mada”. Lexically the prefix “Pra” refers to “an expert” colloquially “a Pro” on something while the word “Madā” a feminine derivative of the root “Mada” which means intoxicated. Thus the word as a whole refers to a woman who is intoxicated; and the toxicity obviously being her femininity. To put in simple terms: a hot woman. Arthur D. Ryder in his English poetic rendering[9] has euphemistically used the word “maiden” for it.
Here the term “hot women” clearly objectifies women by reducing them to their physical appearance and sexual desirability, it also serves to reinforce harmful gender stereotypes.
Instance 2
While Śakuntalā is watering plants in the garden. One of her friends Anasūya teases this way[10] :
“Hey Śakutnala I guess these Āśrama trees are dearer to father Kaśyap than you are because you who is as delicate as a new star jasmine flower are appointed to the job of watering these hermitage plants”[11]. Moreover,, Dusyanta keenly listens to their conversation hiding behind a nearby shrubs. When he sees Śakuntalā he expressed his wonder in these words:
“If any sage who wishes this tender body to perform Tapasyā[12] surely he is attempting to chop off vines on a Khejri tree with a delicate lotus blade”[13].
Here in the first analogy Śakuntalā’s body is being compared with a new jasmine flower by her friend, a fellow women. While it is intended as a compliment, it may be seen as objectifying and reducing women to passive objects of beauty. It also highlights the fact that women can also internalize harmful gender stereotypes and perpetuate them. In the second instance the comparison of a woman’s body to a delicate jasmine flower can be seen as objectifying and infantilizing. It reduces women to objects of beauty and fragility, rather than recognizing their strength and agency. Additionally, comparing the act of Tapasyā, with the act of chopping off a vine can be seen as disrespectful underestimation of their strength.
Instance 3
Duṣyanta still is watching the women hiding behind the shrubs. Śakuntalā gets her bra strap loosened. He becomes aroused to see her naked breast, which is expressed in this way:
“This thin barky garment hung from the lady’s shoulder to conceal her larger breasts is preventing her beauty from shinning as clearly as a fresh flower covered beneath withered leaves do”[14].
This incident can be taken as an example of voyeurism, as Duṣyanta watches Śakuntalā without her knowledge or consent. Furthermore, the way in which Duṣyanta describes Śakuntalā’s breasts as “larger” and “shining as clearly as a fresh flower” can be seen as objectifying her body, reducing her to a set of physical attributes rather than treating her as a complex and multifaceted person.
Instance 4
While king Duṣyanta is overhearing Śakuntalā and her friends’ conversations from behind a shrub, one of her friend Priyamvadā asks her to stand next to the Keshar tree for a moment as she wants to compare the pair with a vine in a tree. This is how she compares:
“Hello Śakuntalā hold on here, you appear complementing this Keshar tree as a vine.[15] Śakuntalā happily replies: “That’s why your name is Priyamvadā”[16]. Dusyanta who is still staying hidden finds this analogy justified. He says to himself: “Whatever Priyamvadā has told is really a fact; as her lips are red as new leaf shoot, her arms soft as a young stems and the beauty of her youth permeates her body like the flowers of a blooming vine”.[17] Śakuntalā admits her happiness in Priyamvadā’s compliment[18].
This vine-tree analogy goes on for a few more lines in the play until when Dusyanta suddenly jumps in stage to protect Śakuntalā from an invading bee. Another similar analogy common in classical literature is that of the bee and flower where men are seen as bees and women as flowers. These analogy typifies male female relations. The former serves to suggests that women are more delicate as slender vine and men are stronger as a sturdy tree while latter implies that women are not capable enough to protect themselves from harms even by a tinny creature and men should always be standing by to protect her.
Instance 5
Duṣyanta was getting closer with Śakuntalā when was suddenly called from the palace. With his departure his desire for her grows even stronger. He recalls the pleasant time he had spent with her in the hermitage. This is how he recalls:
“Taking into account the power of the creator and the beauty of her body, she appears as though she has been crafted by God using all of his tools and visualizing her in his mind. She is truly a masterpiece of feminine beauty, unlike anything else in creation”[19].
The description of women’s beauty in this verse may be seen as degrading to women because it reduces them to objects of beauty that are created solely for the male gaze. The idea that women are created by God using his tools, and that their beauty is unparalleled and unlike anything else in creation, serves to exemplify that women’s value solely lies in their physical appearance.
Instance 6
Just below the previous verse there is another similar one which values women’s virginity as the highest virtue.
“Her virginity is like a pristine flower, untouched and pure, as if a delicate sprout not yet plucked by nails, as though a precious gem fresh and unblemished, as if a fresh honey sweet and unexplored, a complete embodiment of virtues, I cannot help but wonder who will be the lucky one to enjoy her incomparable radiance.”[20]
This comparison of woman’s virginity to various untouched and pristine things may reinforce the idea that a woman’s value lies in her sexuality and her ability to conform to patriarchal expectations. It suggests that the women who engage in sexual activity before marriage or outside of marriage are somehow “damaged goods.”
Instance 7
Dușyanta’s desire remains unfulfilled as he had to go away from Śakuntalā. He recalls her in his palace. The following verse[21] documents his memories of his beloved Śakuntalā. In his recollection, he remembers several aspects of Śakuntalā’s appearance and behavior that were endearing to him:
“The affectionate way in which she looked even when directing her eyes away, the slow steps (slacken speed) she took owing to the heaviness of her buttocks as though through dalliance (amusing). Also the indignant words she addressed to her friend when stopped by her with ‘Do not go all that indeed had reference to me. Oh! Everywhere a lover sees his own”[22]
The noteworthy point in this expression is the use of the term “Nitamba” which refers to buttock. The verse’s focus on her buttocks and describing them as “heavy,” may imply that Śakuntalā’s movements are slow or cumbersome because of her body shape, which objectifies her further by suggesting that her buttock is the primary thing of interest about her.
Due to the profuseness of such remarks and innuendos, a brief examination along with citations are provided hereby.
Instance 8
The king can’t bear her separation. The next day early in morning he begins pursuing her. He discovers some footprints along the vine wreathed bank of the Mālini River. On seeing the footsteps on this white sand, going shallow towards toe mounds and deep towards heel, he conjectures it to be hers. This is how he describes her[23]:
At its entrance, where there is white sand, appears a fresh line of foot-steps, raised in front and depressed behind owing to the heaviness of the buttocks[24]. Here the term Jaghan refers to Śakuntalā’s buttock.
Instance 9
The king after finding Śakuntalā lay on a flower strewn bench of bed with her two attending friends pale and sick, guesses the cause of her illness. Her unwavering beauty leads him to conclude that the scorching heat of summer isn’t the culprit, it’s rather heat of rising love (youth). She’s put salve upon her breast[25]. Single lotus wristband is loosened.
In another scene Śakuntalā becomes lean and thin day by day. The king hidden behind a large tree applauding her slim figure says:
Her cheeks on face are getting thin and her Breasts[26] are hanging loose.
Here Sakuntala’s physique is being praised with a focus on her larger breast.
Instance 10
After insistence of her friends Śakuntalā reveals her yearning for the king. They advise Śakuntalā to compose a love song to be sent secretly to the king. She wants to compose but fears of his rejection. Both of the friends assure her thus:
‘Hey ignorant of own worth, would anybody keep the soothing autumn moon beams off by using an umbrella[27]?
The metaphorical use of autumn moon beams and umbrella here highlights the societal gender roles where girls is implied as a pleasing object like beams of an autumn moon.
Instance 11
The hidden king now appears before the women. Priyambadā and Anasuyā greet with courtesy. Śakuntalā, later on asks for pardon for not showing etiquette. The king addresses her with the word Rambhoru[28] putting forth a condition for forgiveness. The term Rambhoru means a girl whose thighs have got a shape like that of tapering banana trunk. In the immediately following verse a term ‘Karavoru’ is used to call Śakuntalā. The term literally means a woman whose thighs are tapering as that of a baby elephant’s trunk.
Instance 12
After Śakuntalā resists the kings’ sexual advancements the king exclaims: “‘how come your heart is so rigid like that of stalks of a Śiriș flower, when your body is so smooth to offer an intense sensual pleasure”[29].
Here the term Anirdayopabhogasya is attributive qualifier of the word beauty (in this context of “body”). It’s morphed from a combination of two compounds: a) anirdaya b) upavoga which refers to the body that is capable to offer unrestrained or intense pleasure.
Instance 13
The king regrets his earlier dating with Śakuntalā because he has failed to fulfil his desire of making love with her then. So he wishes again: “If only I got the beautiful lady in private once again, I wouldn’t miss a chance again because the moments for sensual pleasure are very rarely obtained”[30].
This shows that the kings’ longing for her was not a result of his genuine love, rather it was driven by a passion to have a sex with her.
Preference of male children:
Another prominent feature of classical Sanskrit literature is the preference of male children over female. Although it should not be taken as representative of all ancient Hindu attitudes towards gender as the period of classical Indian thoughts spans across cultures and over times allowing for diverse views and attitudes to emerge. There are some references in this play that reflect this biased preference. The following episode in the play demonstrate this bias.
Once the king Duṣyanta chasing a deer approaches a hermitage. The king is about to draw his arrow to hit the target when two hermits appear and request him to spare as it belonged to the hermitage. The king agrees. Hermits in turn utter the following wish for him:
“It’s appropriate for a decent of Kuru dynasty (not to harm animals belonging to hermitage). I wish you would beget a son just as sovereign and noble as you are[31].”
The hermits’ wish for Duṣyanta to have a son who is “sovereign and noble” suggests that they believe male children are inherently better suited to rule than female children. This reflects a patriarchal worldview in which men are seen as inherently more valuable and powerful than women.
Furthermore, the fact that the hermits express this wish to Duṣyanta, specifically, reinforces the idea that the male line of descent is more important than the female line. The hermits are essentially suggesting that Duṣyanta’s worth as a king and a member of the Kuru dynasty will be determined by his ability to father a male child who can carry on his legacy.
Reference to harem
Harem is the most extreme form of sexual objectification of women. It is a medieval inhuman practice of confining women in a secluded space for the exclusive pleasure of male rulers. It has been associated with several cultures throughout history. This paly in two places depicts this practice.
At first it’s mentioned in the context of King Duṣyanta arriving at a hermitage where three hermit women are preparing to watering plants. The beauty of the young women attracts him. He expresses his feeling about them in this way:
“If the body of a hermit girl is more attractive than that of a woman from the harem, then certainty a wild vine exceed indoor plants in terms of beauty[32]“.
In second it’s mentioned by the jester when he mock kings’ interest in Śakuntalā. This is how he mocks: “As someone, who, after getting weary of delicious dishes finds wild plant tasty, the same way, the king, fed up with enjoying voluptuous women in harem is longing for a rustic girl”[33]
In the first instance the compound “Śuddhānta-durlavam” is made up of two words: “Śuddhānta” and “Durlabham”. The term “Śuddhānta” denotes the harem and “Durlabahm” rare. Which collectively refers to something that is rare even in the Harem while in the second it’s “Antahpur” that refers to the harem.
Damsel in distress
“Damsel in distress” refers to a common narrative trope in literature, film, and other forms of storytelling where a female character, often portrayed as young and beautiful, finds herself in a helpless or vulnerable situation, typically requiring rescue or assistance from a male character. They are shown to be helpless even in before a small creature. There is one such instance in this play where damsel Śakuntalā has gone to distress before a tinny bee. In a scene a bee drifts out of a spout and hovers around her when Śakuntalā pours the water in. Terrified Śakuntalā seeks help from her friends. This is how she requests them:
“Oh, look! These bees started hovering around my face from the Jasmine, avoiding the water. Please help me form these invading bees.”[34] Her friends in response suggest to seek a help from the king Duṣyanta: “kings are responsible for the protection (of hermitages)[35]“.
Here the king Dusyanta, a man, has to come to her rescue. She is too helpless to protect herself from a bee.
Moreover, this bee-flower metaphor also serves to illustrate the traditional male female relations where the bee is seen as an active and aggressive seeker who pursues the passive and receptive flower. The flower is seen as a passive and yielding entity that offers itself to the bee, symbolizing the traditional role of women in Indian society as submissive and accommodating to men.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the analysis of the play “Abhijñānaśākuntalam” reveals a complex portrayal of women that reflects both the cultural context of classical Indian literature and the challenges of gender representation. While criticizing the presence of sexual objectification and other biased gender norms, it is important to consider the popularity and enduring appeal of the play, as well as the ambiguous nature of women’s depiction in classical Indian literature.
“Abhijñānaśākuntalam” enjoyed immense popularity throughout the centuries, captivating audiences and earning its status as a classic. This popularity can be attributed to various factors, including the skillful storytelling, lyrical language, and the portrayal of characters with depth and nuance. The character of Śakuntalā, with her intelligence, resilience, and agency, offers a compelling and relatable figure that resonated with audiences. However, it is crucial to recognize that classical Indian literature often presents an ambiguous depiction of women. While some female characters like Śakuntalā exhibit strength and independence, they are also subjected to objectification and restrictive gender norms. These conflicting portrayals reflect the complexities of societal attitudes towards women during that time, where they were both revered and confined within prescribed roles.
Moving forward, it is important to continue studying and discussing classical Indian literature and its portrayal of women, recognizing the nuances and contradictions inherent in these texts.
References
Ryder, A. W. (1999). kalidasa Śakuntalā. In A. W. Ryder, kalidasa Śakuntalā (p. 93). Cambridge, Ontario : Parenthesis publications, Sanskrit Seres.
Tathagatanand, S. (2011, may 1). Articles by Tathagatananda. Retrieved from vedantany.org: http://www.vedantany.org/articles/
Shastri, Ved Prakash (2000 AD), Abhijñānaśākuntalam: Prakash, Hindi, Sankrit, English Commentaries, Chaukhambha Vidya vawan, Varanasi
[1] Wouldst thou the young year’s blossoms and the fruits of its decline
And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,
Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sole name combine?
I name thee, O Sakuntala! and all at once is said.” Translated by E.B. Eastwick: Wikipedia
[2] No composition of Kālidāsa displays more the richness of his poetical genius, the exuberance of his imagination, the warmth and play of his fancy, his profound knowledge of the human heart, his delicate appreciation of its most refined and tender emotions, his familiarity with the workings and counter workings of its conflicting feelings – in short more entitles him to rank as the Shakespeare of India.” Wikipedia.
[3] “Kālidāsa, the celebrated author of the Śākuntalā, is a masterly describer of the influence which Nature exercises upon the minds of lovers. Tenderness in the expression of feelings and richness of creative fancy have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of all nations.: Wikipedia
[4] Wilt thou the blossoms of spring and the fruits that are later in season,
Wilt thou have charms and delights, wilt thou have strength and support,
Wilt thou with one short word encompass the earth and the heaven,
All is said if I name only, [Shakuntala], thee.
[5] ध्यानव्याजमुपेत्य चिन्तयसि कामुन्मील्य चक्षुः क्षणं ।
पश्यानङ्गशरातुरं जनमिमं त्रातापि नो रक्षसि ।।
मिथ्या कारूणिको सि निर्घृणतर त्वत्तः कुतो न्यो पुमान्
शश्वसन् मारवधूभिरत्यभिहितो बौद्धो जिनः पातु वः ।।
Translation:
May the god Buudha protect you who is constantly blamed by young women in this way: Which women are you picturing in your mind in the pretext of meditation? You are the protector, so open your eyes for a moment and look at us hit by Cupid’s arrow, yet you are not saving. You feign compassion, no man is as hypocritical as you are.
[6] क्षिप्तो हस्तावलग्नः प्रसममभिदतोऽण्याददानौऽशुकान्तं ।
गृह्णनन्केषेष्वपास्तश्चरणनिपतिते नेक्षितः संभ्रमेण ।
आलिङ्गन्योऽवघूतस्तिपुरयुवतिभिः सास्रुनेत्रोत्पलाभिः ।
कामीवाद्रापराधः स दहतु दुरितं शाम्भवो वः शराग्निः १।२॥ अमरूशतकम्
(Translation: May the fire of Siva’s dart scorch away your sin: The fire which was treated like a lover, caught in fresh iniquity, by the young wives of Tripura; as they repulsed it, it clung to their hands ; although they struck it with force, it still seized the hems of their garments ; as it seized them by the hair, they knocked it away from them; as it fell down at their feet, they did not observe it in their bewilderment; and as it lapped them in an embrace, they repelled it with tears in their lotus-like eyes.)
In this verse a puny comparison is made between a lusty lover and the god Shiva’s fiery dart. )
[7] Sutra-dhara and Nati are translated as “Stage-director” by Arthur D Ryder.
[8]इषच्चुम्बितानि भ्रमरैः पश्य सुकुमारकेसरशिखानि।।
अवतंसयन्ति दयमानाः प्रमदाः शिरीषकुसुमानि ।।१।।२
Translation:
Look! These hot women decorating themselves with mimosa flowers whose delicate nectar-top is gently kissed by bees.
[9] The siris-blossoms fair,
With pollen laden,
Are plucked to deck her hair
By many a maiden,
But gently; flowers like these
Are kissed by eager bees. – Arthur D Ryder
